he/him | I post random stuff, whatever has to do with my hyperfixations | Current hyperfixations: mycology and marine biology.
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Night Light Mushroom - Mycena Chlorophos
Night light mushroom - Mycena chlorophos
This post will discuss Mycena chlorophos, a bioluminescent fungus found in subtropical Asia.
Fruitbody
M. chlorophos' cap is initially convex before flattening out and often does not exceed 30 mm in diameter. The cap has radial grooves extending to nearly the center (around where the stem connects to the cap) and its margin has small rounded teeth. It has a pale brownish gray colour that fades with growth and it is thinly coated by a somewhat sticky substance. ¹
The gill attachment is free, or adnexed to a slight collar encircling the stem. Initially white then grayish in color, they are somewhat crowded, with 17–32 full-length gills and 1 to 3 tiers of lamellulae*. The gills are 0.3–1 mm wide with micaceous edges.¹
The whiteish stem is 6–30 mm long and 0.3–1 mm thick. The stipe is hollow, translucent and tomentulose (seemingy covered with hair). The base of the stem is disc-shaped or somewhat bulbous, measuring 1–2.5 mm wide. ¹
Bioluminescence (macroscopic and microscopic)
The distribution of luminescence in M. chlorophos is not homogenous. The light intensity in the cap and gills is greater than in the stipe. ² Wether the mycelium is biolumiscent, is not certain from my research. While text source 1 says that the mycelium has little to no luminescence, text source 4 claims that the mycelium is bioluminescent. So it might be bioluminescent, but it might also not be.
On microscopic scale, the luminescence processes are localized to the membrane of the hymenium and basidia cells of the gill. Some parts of the luminescence system are also known to be on the surface of the cell membrane. ²
Spores and microscopic features
The spores are white, smooth, roughly elliptical, and are 7–8.5 by 5–6 μm. The basidia (spore-bearing cells) are 17–23 by 7.5–10 μm, and four-spored with sterigmata around 3 μm long. The paraphyses are 5–8 μm wide, shorter than the basidia, more abundant and form a somewhat gelatinous layer.
The cheilocystidia (cystidia on the cap edge) are 60 by 7–21 μm, hyaline, conical or ventricose. The tips of the cheilocystidia are drawn out to a point, or have a short appendage measuring 15 by 2–3 μm, which is sometimes branched, and is thin or slightly thick-walled. There are no pleurocystidia (cystidia on the gills). Pileocystidia (cystidia on the surface of the cap) are club-shaped, measuring 25–60 by 13–25 μm. They are somewhat thick-walled, and spiny on the exposed surface with short outgrowths extending up to 3 μm long. The pileocystidia are joined together and form a continuous layer over the young cap, but break up as the cap expands. The caulocystidia (cystidia on the stem) are conical or lance-shaped, hyaline, and smooth, with walls that are thin or slightly thickened. They measure up to 300 by 10–25 μm, but are shorter in the upper regions of the stem.¹
M. chlorophos are dikaryotic and have clamp connections present throughout the hyphae.²
A, (left) in light; (right) fruiting body in the dark; inset shows top view of the pileus. B, basidia. C, spores. D, caulocystidia. E, cheilocystidia. F, surface view of pileipellis terminal cells embedded in gelatinous matrix of the pileus. ³
Scale bars represent 20 μm, except in (A), where it represents 1 cm. ³
Ecology and distribution
The fungus is found in subtropical Asia, including India, Japan, Taiwan, Polynesia, Indonesia, and Sri Lanka, in Australia, and Brazil.¹
Fruitbodies can be found growing in groups in forests on fallen woody debris such as dead twigs, branches, and logs. In other words it is a saprobic mushroom. The fungus requires a proper range of humidity to form mushrooms.¹ Under extremely moist conditions fruitbodies will become deformed and under extremely dry conditions the mushroom caps become warped and broken.²
The optimum temperature for the growth of mycelia is 27 °C, while the optimum for the growth of primordia is 21 °C. These temperatures are consistent with the subtropical climate in which it is typically found. Peak luminescence occurs at 27 °C, and about 25–39 hours after the primordia begin to form, when the cap has fully expanded. At 21 °C, luminescence persists for about 3 days, and becomes undetectable to the naked eyes about 72 hours after primordium initiation . ¹
The most probable reason the fungus glows has to do with spore dispersal. The luminescent properties of the fungus attracts many insects that while eating from the mushroom also help spreading the spores.⁴
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Images:
Text references:
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2.
3.
4.
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Notes
The term marked*:
Lamellulae - shorter gills that do not extend fully from the cap margin to the stem.
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More Posts from Theprinceofmycologia
Shaggy Inkcap - Coprinus comatus
These mushrooms are most commonly seen in grassland and other open habitats, it is also saprobic.¹ It is easy to recognize by its shaggy cap, when younger cylindrical and later on conical.
The shaggy inkcap's gills are free from the stem and release black spores.² Around the stipe it has got a ring (or as I call it: a skirt).
The pictures were taken sometime last fall, so like November 2023.
This is a spore print that I made. It can be a bit messy because the ink gets on your hands. However, it dries up like mud and you can just wipe it up, at least in my experience.
Sources used in the top paragraph (these might also be useful for if you wish to do your own research):
¹.
².
I went to the botanical gardens and found some cute critters...
Some frogs...
I think these are phantasmal poison frogs or Epipedobates tricolor, but I am not 100% sure.
Some koi fish...
And this majestic bug...
I think it's an Heteropteryx dilatata, but I am not sure...
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If anyone has a better idea of what some of these are, please let me know:)
In this post I mentioned:
"Two other species, Mycena cyanocephala found in Chile and Mycena venata from New Zealand have been shown to be identical to Mycena interrupta."
This is about Rolf Singer's described M. cyanocephala in Chile. Which can be seen below.
Rolf Singer's description is not about the newly discovered Mycena subcyanocephala, which can be found in Taiwan. It looks like this:
This image is from iNaturalist.
I wanted to clear this up and make sure I was not spreading any misinformation:))
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Pixie's parasols - Mycena interrupta
This post will discuss multiple features of M. interrupta, including microscopic features. I would like to note that some of the given measurements in µm might not be entirely correct. The measurements differ per source I have found.
Biology and ecology
M. interrupta is a saprotrophic basidiomycete.¹ In other words it is a mushroom that feeds on non-living organic matter (detritus) and whose spores develop in the basidia.
This species primarily grows gregariously (in groups), however, sometimes it grows solitary or more dispersed. It can usually be found on eucalyptus logs or stumps in Oceania.¹ Otherwise they can be found in Nothofagus forests.²
Fruitbody, spores and microscopic features
The cap is 8 millimeters³ to 20 millimeters in diameter and about 4 milimeters high.¹ While it is globose when emergent, as they age they become convex with a slightly depressed center. The surface of the cap is shiny, gelatinous, transluscent, and striate (striped). The cap has a dull-blue hue in the center and near the edges have a more cyan-blue colour.¹
The gill attachment is adnate to free and the gills are moderately close to distant. The margins of the gills are blue and their sides white. There can also be one or two series of lamellulae.¹
M. interrupta has a central stipe which is up to 22 millimetres long and 2 millimetres thick. The surface of the stipe is often pruinose¹, meaning that it seems to be covered with some kind of frost or a powdery secretion. The stem is transluscent white and is attached to the wooden substrate by a bluish basal disc, which often fades to white.¹
The spores of M. interrupta are white, smooth, ellipsoid, or rarely sub globose. These basidiospores are 8-12 x 5.5-9 µm. The basidia are four-spored or sometimes two-spored, with stout sterigmata to 9 µm long; clavate or pear-shaped, with clamp connection at base.¹
Distribution and range
In Australia and New Zealand this species of Mycena is found in Victoria, Tasmania, New South Wales, South Australia, and Queensland.⁴ This species can also be found in South-America, specifically in Chile.
Two other species, Mycena cyanocephala found in Chile and Mycena veneta from New Zealand have been shown to be identical to Mycena interrupta. This distribution suggests that this species has its origins in the flora of Gondwana.⁵
Links to M. interrupta images:
Text references:
1.
https://www.fncv.org.au/fungi-in-australia/
-> https://www.fncv.org.au/wp-content/uploads/publications/fungi_in_australia/fia-3-basidio-agarico-I.pdf
-> Pages 316 to 317.
2.
3.
4.
5.
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Maybe a fun fact, if you aren't Australian, or just didn't know yet:))
Eucalyptus forests or sclerophyll forests are the most common types of forests in Australia and most species of eucalyptus are native to Australia.
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Hiyaaaa, some more mycology info:) I know that some of you quite like the Mycena genus, so I hope you'll enjoy this post:))
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Could you tell me about candida aureus and alternaria solani? My friend studies them and they look so interesting
Hiii, I am so sorry for reacting so late, I have just been really busy with exams and stuff. Anyway, here is the post about Candida Aureus. I will also post about Alternaria solani, but at another time because I am still occupied with my exams.
This post will focus more on the fungus itself, rather than the effect it has on humans.
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Candida aureus
Candida auris is a type of fungus that grows a yeast and can cause candidiases in humans. It is most often contracted in hospitals by patients with a reduced immunity.¹ The fungus can enter the blood causing fungemia (the presence of yeast or fungi in the blood) and cause serious infections.² These infections affect the bloodstream, central nervous system and the internal organs.¹
C. auris has attracted attention because of its drug resistance. It was discovered in 2009 and has seemed to spread globally in the past 15 years.
Identification and microscopic features
C. auris was first described and identified in 2009 after being found in the ear canal of a 70-year-old Japanese woman at the Tokyo Metropolitan Geriatric Hospital in Japan. It is a species of ascomycetous fungus of the genus Candida that grows as a yeast. It forms smooth, shiny, whitish-grey, viscous colonies on growth media.¹
Microscopically, cells are ellipsoid in shape.¹ The cells are approximately 2.5–5.0 micrometres in size and are arranged singly, in pairs or even in groups. C. auris does not form hyphae or pseudohyphae. Although, if it is grown under high-salt stress and depletion of heat-shock proteins, it can result in production of pseudohyphae like forms.³
Candida auris-fungus. Picture by Christopher Paul
Origins and emergence of the species
DNA analysis of four distinct but drug-resistant strains of Candida auris indicate an evolutionary divergence taking place at least 4,000 years ago. The common leap among the four strains into drug-resistance might be linked to to widespread azole-type antifungal use in agriculture. However, explanations for its emergence remain speculative.¹
Proposed scheme for the emergence of C. auris
Another possible explanation for its origins and spread is suggested to revolve around seawater. Molecular biologist Auke de Jong explains the correlation: ‘Because this fungus has a very high tolerance for salt, which is a substance many fungi cannot cope with. The sea could be a plausible route for the global spread of Candida auris; it may have been spread across the globe by the currents.’ ⁴
Vaccine development and treatment
As of June 2024 there is no human vaccine against Candida auris, however experiments involving the NDV-3A vaccine have successfully immunized mice against the fungus. This vaccine also improved the protective efficacy of the antifungal drug micafungin against C. auris infection in the mouse bloodstream.¹
Treatment can be complicated because of its multiple drug resistance and it easily being misidentified as various other Candida species.¹
Highly adaptable
Molecular biologist Auke de Jong also talks about how C. auris is a highly adaptable fungus. Besides its high tolerance for salt, it can also survive relatively high temperatures and commonly used disinfectants. The actions of mankind have accelerated the fungus’ adaptive capacity. Through the large-scale use of fungicides in agriculture, we have accelerated the adaptation process in this fungus. This contributes to the development of an fungus that is rapidly building an increasingly stronger resistance to the substances with which we fight it.⁴
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References
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Alternia solani
Alternia solani is a fungal pathogen that produces a disease in various memebers of the Solanum genus called early blight.¹
Host plants
Host plants include various members of the Solanum genus. Such as tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), potato (Solanum tuberosum), aubergine (Solanum melongena), bell pepper (Capsicum annuum) and other pepper species (Capsicum spp.).²
Symptoms
The symptoms of early blight will vary depending on the host and plant tissue.²
Foliar symptoms are dark brown ranging to black necrosis. The first symptoms often appear on the older leaves as small, dark, necrotic lesions, a few millimetres in diameter, which increase in size. The lesions are sometimes restricted by leaf veins and will take on an angular shape. Within larger lesions, concentric rings (so called bullseye) can be seen, usually surrounded by a chlorotic, yellowing zone. The chlorosis can extend to the whole infected leaf. The infected lesions enlarge and the whole leaf becomes necrotic which results in premature defoliation.²
With tomato plants, the premature defoliation can cause injury to the fruits due to sunscald.²
"Bullseye" patterned leaf lesion of Alternaria solani on a tomato plant¹
On tomato, Alternia solani can cause symptoms on the stem. Dark and sunken lesions can appear on the stems of seedlings, called collar rot. The infected seedling shows reduced plant vigour or can die when the stem is completely girdled by the lesion. The main stem of adult tomato plants can also be infected, showing small, slightly sunken lesions. As on the leaves, typical concentric rings are visible on the infected stem.²
On green or ripe tomato fruits, dark lesions can occur at the end of the stem. Ripe fruits are less susceptible than semi-ripe ones. Heavily infected fruits will drop prematurely. On less resistant cultivars, the calyx and blossom also can be infected and show comparable symptoms.²
Stem lesion of Alternaria solani on a potato plant¹
The symptoms on potato tubers are dark, slightly sunken lesions (dry rot). The dry or hard rot of tubers causes storage losses, reduces the quality of table potatoes, and reduces the germination capacity of seed potatoes.²
Disease cycle
Alternaria solani has a polycyclic life cycle and reproduces asexually by means of conidia (spores).¹
A. solani is a necrotrophic pathogen: it kills the host tissue using cell wall degrading enzymes and toxins and feeds on the dead plant cell material.¹
The life cycle starts with the fungus overwintering in crop residues or wild members of the family Solanaceae. In the spring, conidia are produced. Multicellular conidia are splashed by water or by wind onto an uninfected plant. The conidia infect the plant by entering through stromata, small wounds, or direct penetration. Infections usually start on older leaves close to the ground. The fungus takes time to grow and eventually forms a lesion. From this lesion, more conidia are created and released. These conidia infect other plants or other parts of the same plant within the same growing season. Every part of the plant can be infected and form lesions. This is especially important when fruit or tubers are infected as they can be used to spread the disease.¹
Distribution and environment
Distribution of Alternia solani ²
Alternaria solani spores are universally present in fields where host plants have been grown.¹
Free water is required for the spores to germinate; spores will be unable to infect a perfectly dry leaf. Alternaria spores germinate within 2 hours over a wide range of temperatures but at 26.6–29.4 °C (79.9–84.9 °F) may only take half an hour. Another 3 to 12 hours are required for the fungus to penetrate the plant depending on temperature. After penetration, lesions may form within 2 to 3 days or the infection can remain dormant awaiting proper conditions. Alternaria sporulates best at about 26.6 °C (79.9 °F) when abundant moisture (as provided by rain, mist, fog, dew, irrigation, etc.) is present. Infections are most prevalent on poorly nourished or otherwise stressed plants.¹
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References
1.
2.
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